Examines the perspectives of actors other than the U.S. government-states and nonstate actors-on the wars in which the United States participated, and assesses the extent to which these actors learned lessons that have implications for their long-term foreign, security, and other important policies, and for their major future actions. Eventually and perhaps indirectly, many of these lessons may affect U.S. policymaking and national interests. Some of these implications already are evident and seem significant, meaning it is important for U.S. decisionmakers and for scholars-preferably sooner than later-to understand, take account of, and in some cases prepare for manifestations of these lessons. Other ramifications of these learning processes undoubtedly will not be apparent for some time to come.