In Search of Refuge: Jews and US Consuls in Nazi Germany 1933-1941

US consuls played a distinctive and crucial role in control of Jewish refugee entry into the United States in 1933-41. The consuls decided individual cases and in doing so had discretion to grant immigration visas. This extended to interpreting aspects of the immigration laws and regulations which were not fully defined, notably the likely to become a public charge clause. The book examines how the consuls perceived, interpreted and administered immigration policy towards the refugees. In particular, the author investigates: the relationship of consuls with the State Department; instances of prejudice; the methods by which consuls obstructed entry of refugees in ways which went beyond instructions and even defeated the object of obstructions; examples of initiatives by consuls, but also reveals some cases of consular initiatives to offer aid such as for example, by issuing protective letters. The book is based on primary sources, including official governmental material, private collections of people working for the government, correspondence of American Jewish and non-Jewish organizations involved in rescue operations, and the correspondence of German Jews. The book indicates that, overall, American consuls in Germany adopted a restrictive policy in both the interpretation and administration of the laws in order to delay and deny visas, especially visas sought by refugee Jews. Given the strict immigration and anti-refugee policy as well as the general anti-alien and antisemitic atmosphere in the United States during these years, a large part of the responsibility for these actions were due to consular antisemitism, both overt and latent.